Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the sixth most common malignancy and the third leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide, accounting for approximately 75 %–85 % of primary liver cancers [1]. Although surgical resection remains the main curative option, the postoperative recurrence rate is high, and the long-term prognosis remains poor. Moreover, a substantial proportion of patients are diagnosed at intermediate or advanced stages, missing the window for potentially curative resection [2–…